Methods and systems for model reduction and system identification of dynamic systems with multiple inputs

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems for model reduction and system identification of dynamic systems are disclosed. In one embodiment, a method includes generating a plurality of statistically independent random numbers for use as input signals, and performing a singular-value-decomposition directly on the system response due to a simultaneous excitation of the plurality of input signals. Alternate embodiments further includes sampling individual pulse responses for the first two time steps, and constructing Hankel-like matrices from which the state-space system matrices (A, B, C, D) are obtained. Since the system response is sampled almost exclusively for the single representative input, the model construction time is significantly reduced, especially for a large-scaled dynamic systems. The plurality of input signals may be filtered through a low-pass filter. Alternately, the plurality of input signals may also include applying multiple step inputs in a sequential manner, and applying multiple pulse inputs in a sequential manner.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates generally to methods and systems for efficientmodel reduction and system identification of dynamic systems, and morespecifically, for linear dynamic systems having multiple inputs using anew Eigensystem Realization Algorithm.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Most modern dynamic models are constructed based on finite spatialdiscretizations of continuous systems, often resulting in a considerablenumber of degrees of freedom in the model. Consequently, for fast andefficient estimation of dynamic behavior, as well as optimizations andclosed-loop control designs, a model reduction is typically performed.Desirable characteristics of a reduced-order dynamic model include thatthe size of the system must not be too large, the model must be robustand have a good fidelity, it must be in the state-space, time domainformulation for implementation of active control systems and nonlineartime analysis, and finally, the reduction process itself must not be tooexpensive.

There have been many model reduction methods available, but most of themrequire modifying the main frame of the computational model, and areprone to a long model construction time if the model is subjected tomany driving inputs. The latter in particular is true in unsteadyComputational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) applications where the moving solidboundary is often described by many structural mode inputs. For example,a typical commercial airplane simulation may involve as many as 200structural modes.

Recently, Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA) was used successfullyin aeroelastic flutter predictions using a computational fluid dynamicscode (CFD) developed by the NASA Langley Research Center known as CFL3D.(See Juang, J. N., Applied System Identification, Prentice HallEnglewood Cliffs, N.J., 1994; Silva, W. A., and Bartels, R. E.,Development of Reduced-Order Models for Aeroelastic Analysis and FlutterPrediction Using CFL3Dv6.0 Code, AIAA-2002-1596; and Hong, M. S.,Bhatia, K. G., SenGupta, G., Kim, T., Kuruvila, G., Silva, W. A.,Bartels, and R., Biedron, R., Simulations of a Twin-Engine TransportFlutter Model In the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel, IFASD Paper 2003-US-44).The ERA method, which is usually used as a system identificationtechnique, has a very attractive feature in that unlike model reductionmethods based on Galerkin scheme (e.g., Dowell, E. H., Hall, K. C., andRomanowski, M. C., Eigenmode Analysis in Unsteady Aerodynamics:Reduced-Order Models, Applied Mechanics Review, Vol. 50, No. 6, 1997,pp. 371-386), there is no need for on-line implementation of thealgorithm. That is, the ERA method is a post-processing tool thatidentifies and generates system matrices based on the input and outputdata alone.

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of the ERA (a.k.a. Pulse/ERA) method 100 ofmodeling a dynamic system in accordance with the prior art. Forsimplicity, only its fundamental state-space realization theory which isattributed to Ho and Kalman is discussed. (see Ho, B. L. and Kalman, R.E., Effective Construction of Linear State-Variable Models fromInput/Output Data, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Allerton Conference onCircuit and System Theory, 1965, pp. 449-459). For a general descriptionof the Pulse/ERA method, see Juang, J.-N. and Pappa, R. S., AnEigensystem Realization Algorithm for Modal Parameter Identification andModel Reduction, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 8,1985, pp. 620-627.

In the Pulse/ERA method 100, it is assumed that the dynamic system underconsideration can be described in the following finite-dimensional,discrete-time form:x ^(n+1) =Ax ^(n) Bu ^(n)  (1)y ^(n) =Cx ^(n) +Du ^(n)  (2)wherex≡(L×1) state vector  (3)u≡(N_(i)×1) input vector  (4)y≡(N₀×1) output vector  (5)The system matrices (A, B), (A, C) are assumed controllable andobservable. First, given M+1 equally distributed time steps,$\begin{matrix}{t^{n} \equiv {n\quad\Delta\quad t}} & {\left( {{n = 0},1,2,\ldots\quad,M} \right),}\end{matrix}$for a single i-th input vector the system output is sampled subjected tothe unit pulse, $\begin{matrix}{u_{i}^{n} = {\delta^{ni} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}1 & \left( {n = 0} \right) \\0 & \left( {{{ni} = 1},2,\ldots\quad,M} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$Assuming zero initial condition, x⁰=x(0)=0, one obtains $\begin{matrix}{{{y^{n}\text{?}} = d_{i}}{{y^{1}\text{?}} = {Cb}_{i}}{{y^{1}\text{?}} = {CA}_{i}}{{y^{3}\text{?}} = {{CA}^{2}b_{i}}}\quad{\vdots\quad\vdots}{{y^{M}\text{?}} = {{CA}^{M - 1}b_{i}}}{where}} & (7) \\{b_{i} \equiv {\text{?}\text{-}{nth}\quad{column}\quad{of}\quad B}} & (8) \\{{d_{i} \equiv {\text{?}\text{-}{nth}\quad{column}\quad{of}\quad D}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$The constant matrices in the above sequence are known as the Markovparameters. As shown in FIG. 1, for all inputs 102 into the dynamicsystem, the Markov parameters are computed (block 104) creating thesequence of pulse-response matrices: $\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{Y^{n} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{1}^{n} & y_{2}^{n} & \ldots & {y^{n}\text{?}}\end{matrix}}} & \left( {{n = 0},1,2,{\ldots\quad M}} \right)\end{matrix} \\{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}\end{matrix} & (10)\end{matrix}$Next, based on the system Markov parameters (block 104), the Pulse/ERAmethod 100 defines N₀×(Ni×(M−1)) Hankel matrices: $\begin{matrix}{H_{0} \equiv {\begin{matrix}Y^{1} & Y^{2} & \ldots & Y^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}\quad \equiv {C{\begin{matrix}I & A & A^{2} & \ldots & {{A^{M - 2}}B}\end{matrix}}}} & (11) \\{H_{1} \equiv {{Y^{2}\quad Y^{3}\quad\ldots\quad Y^{M}}}\quad \equiv {C{\begin{matrix}A & A^{2} & \ldots & {{A^{M - 1}}B}\end{matrix}}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

Singular-value-decomposition (SVD) of H₀ yields $\begin{matrix}{{H_{0} \equiv {U\quad{\sum\quad V^{T}}} \simeq {{{\begin{matrix}U_{R} & U_{D}\end{matrix}}\begin{bmatrix}\sum\limits_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}} = {U_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}V_{R}^{T}}}}} & (13)\end{matrix}$where R≡rank(H₀). Finally, a balanced realization of the system underquestion is obtained by pseudo-inverting various submatrix components(block 108 of FIG. 1) as follows: $\begin{matrix}{D = {Y^{0}\left( {N_{0} \times 1} \right)}} & (14) \\{C \simeq {U_{R}{\sum\limits_{R}^{1/2}\left( {N_{0} \times R} \right)}}} & (15) \\{B \simeq {{the}\quad{first}\quad N_{i}\quad{columns}\quad{of}\quad{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{V_{R}^{T}\quad\left( {{Ri} \times N_{i}} \right)}}}} & (16) \\{A \simeq {\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}{U_{R}^{T}H_{1}V_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}\quad\left( {R \times R} \right)}}}} & (17)\end{matrix}$

Since R<<L, the above model represents a reduced-order realization ofthe original system. Note that the realization is optimal in that it isbalanced between inputs and outputs. However, the total number ofsamples taken is N_(i)×(M+1), which increases proportional to the numberof inputs. Also, for an accurate system identification H₀ must havesufficient columns and rows, i.e., N_(i)×(M−1), ≧R and N₀≧R.

For a very large data set Y^(n) with many time steps and a large numberof inputs, the Eigensystem Realization Algorithm/Data Correlations(ERA/DC) method may be preferred. As described, for example, in Juang,J. N., Applied System Identification, Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs,N.J., 1994, the ERA/DC method may be used to compress the amount of dataand reduce the computation time required for the SVD of the Hankelmatrix.

Although desirable results have been achieved using the prior artcomputational methods, there is room for improvement. For example, ifthe unsteady CFD model is driven by multiple structural inputs, asdescribed above, the computation time required to obtain all the pulseresponses increases proportional to the number of the inputs, making theERA method undesirably slow and inefficient. Therefore, a need existsfor improved methods for model reduction and system identification oflarge-scaled linear dynamic systems having multiple inputs

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to methods and systems for modelreduction and system identification of dynamic systems having multipleinputs. Embodiments of the methods in accordance with the presentinvention may advantageously reduce the model construction and systemidentification time, especially for a large-scaled system, and compressthe amount of output data. Furthermore, they do not require modifyingthe original code, and take only input and output data for the modelconstruction. That is, it is 100% a post-processing tool.

In one embodiment, a method of model reduction and system identificationincludes generating a plurality of statistically independent randomnumbers for use as input signals, and performing asingular-value-decomposition directly on the system response due to thesimultaneous excitation of all the inputs, also known as theSingle-Composite-Input (SCI). In alternate embodiments, the methodfurther includes sampling individual pulse responses for the first timeand second time steps. Alternately, the input signals are filteredthrough a low-pass filter. The plurality of input signals may furtherinclude applying multiple step inputs in a sequential manner, andapplying multiple pulse inputs in a sequential manner.

In an alternate embodiment, a method of model reduction and systemidentification includes generating a plurality of statisticallyindependent random numbers for use as input signals, performing asingular-value-decomposition directly on the system response due to theSingle-Composite-Input (SCI), sampling individual pulse responses forthe first time and second time steps. The method further includesdefining the Hankel-like matrices H_(c0) and H_(c1) as follows:$\begin{matrix}{{H_{c0} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}\quad = {C{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} & (25) \\{{{H_{c1} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}\quad = {{CA}{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}}{{SVD}\quad{of}\quad H_{c0}\quad{yields}}} & (26) \\{{H_{c0} \equiv {U{\sum V^{T}}}\quad \simeq {{{\begin{matrix}U_{R} & U_{D}\end{matrix}}\begin{bmatrix}\sum\limits_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}}\quad = {U_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}V_{R}^{T}}}}} & (27)\end{matrix}$Finally, the method identifies the system matrices (A, B, C, D) by aleast-square approximation as follows: $\begin{matrix}{D = Y^{0}} & (28) \\{C \simeq {U_{R}\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}}} & (29) \\{B \simeq {\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}}}} & (30) \\{A \simeq {\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}{U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}}}} & (31)\end{matrix}$

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The preferred and alternative embodiments of the present invention aredescribed in detail below with reference to the following drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of the Pulse/ERA method in accordance withthe prior art;

FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the SCI/ERA method in accordance with anembodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a vortex lattice model for computing anunsteady flow field around a flat, rectangular wing in accordance withan embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 4 shows three sets of random numbers generated as inputs to thevortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 shows sets of generalized aerodynamic forces computed using thevortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3;

FIG. 6 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues computed using the vortexlattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a first scale for V=80 m/sec;

FIG. 7 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues computed using the vortexlattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a second scale for V=80 m/sec;

FIG. 8 shows an aeroelastic time response of the first structural modecomputed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 for V=80 m/sec;

FIG. 9 shows an aeroelastic time response of the second structural modecomputed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 for V=80 m/sec;

FIG. 10 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues computed using the vortexlattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a first scale for V=121.2 m/sec;

FIG. 11 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues computed using the vortexlattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a second scale for V=121.2 m/sec;

FIG. 12 shows an aeroelastic time response of the first structural modecomputed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 for V=121.2m/sec;

FIG. 13 shows an aeroelastic time response of the second structural modecomputed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 for V=121.2m/sec;

FIG. 14 shows a graph of model construction time of different ERAmethods versus number of inputs for the vortex lattice formulation ofFIG. 3;

FIG. 15 shows a graph of CPU seconds spent constructing various ERAmodels in accordance with alternate embodiments of the present invention(on which FIG. 14 is based);

FIG. 16 is a representative CFL3D simulation model in accordance with anembodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 17 shows four structural mode shapes used for the CFL3D simulationmodel of FIG. 16; and

FIG. 18 shows a V-g plot of two different reduced-order aeroelasticmodels based on the CFL3D simulation in accordance with an embodiment ofthe present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates to methods and systems for model reductionand system identification of dynamic systems having multiple inputs.Many specific details of certain embodiments of the invention are setforth in the following description and in FIGS. 2-18 to provide athorough understanding of such embodiments. One skilled in the art,however, will understand that the present invention may have additionalembodiments, or that the present invention may be practiced withoutseveral of the details described in the following description.

In general, embodiments of methods in accordance with the presentinvention include a new, efficient discrete-time domain systemidentification and model reduction method for large-scaled lineardynamic systems with multiple inputs. In one embodiment, a method inaccordance with the present invention is based on a modification of theclassical Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA) and a simultaneousinjection of multiple inputs, so called the Single-Composite-Input(SCD). Since the system response is sampled almost exclusively for thesingle representative input instead of the multiple individual inputs,embodiments of the present invention can significantly reduce the modelconstruction time as well as the amount of the sampled data. Derivationof the new algorithm in accordance with the present disclosure mayinclude performing a singular value decomposition using a single set ofoutput measurements that are not necessarily attributed to pulse inputs.Representative simulations performed using embodiments of the presentinvention exhibit reduced computation times and excellent resultsobtained from the reduced-order models, thereby showing great potentialof the present invention as a linear system identification and modelreduction tool for large-scaled systems subjected to multiple inputs.

Unless otherwise stated, the following nomenclature is used throughoutthe following detailed description:

-   A B C D System matrices-   A_(d1) A_(d2) Aeroelastic system matrices-   A_(s) B_(s) C_(s) Structural system matrices-   b Reference length-   C_(ij) Cross-correlation coefficient-   E Expected value-   K Covariance matrix defined in (48)-   L Dimension of original system-   M Number of time or frequency samples or Mach number-   m c k Mass, damping, stiffness matrices-   p (R₁×1) generalized coordinate vector-   q Dynamic pressure (=½p V²)-   R Number of chosen singular modes or the dimension of realized model-   R₁ Number of chosen KL modes-   s Laplace variable-   t Real time-   u (N_(i)×1) input or generalized structural coordinate vector-   u_(i) i-th input or structural coordinate-   V Air speed-   x (L×1) state or aerodynamic state vector-   X Fourier transform of x-   y (N₀×1) output vector or (N_(i)×1) generalzied aerodynamic force    vector-   y^(n) _(i) Pulse response due to i-th input-   φ_(i) KL mode-   Φ KL modal matrix-   ρ Air density-   τ Reduced time ( ≡ ?)    ?indicates text missing or illegible when filed-   ω Frequency (rad/sec)-   ω_(c) Maximum cut-off frequency

Subscripts

-   i Input-   o Output-   R Reduced-   ref Reference-   s Structure

FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the Single-Composite-Input (SCI)/ERAmethod 200 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Asdescribed more fully below, the SCI/ERA method 200 is based on thepremise that for a linear system, one can apply the multiple inputssimultaneously and get all the system responses that are necessary forthe model reduction. Since the computational model needs to be executedalmost exclusively for the representative input, the model constructiontime can be significantly reduced.

Embodiments of the present invention include implementing the SCI/ERAmethod for fast and efficient model reduction of linear,finite-dimensional, discrete-time systems with multiple inputs. Toaccommodate the SCI within the framework of the Pulse/ERA, it isnecessary to modify the original algorithm. In particular, as shownbelow, the new formulation does not rely on the system Markov parametersexplicitly. Instead, it performs the singular-value-decomposition (SVD)directly on the output measurements that are in general not attributedto pulse inputs. Statistically independent random numbers are used inlieu of the pulses for the multiple input signals. Naturally,embodiments of the present invention can also be used towards systemidentification provided that all the time measurements are availablefrom experiments. Application of the SCI/ERA method 200 to computationalfluid dynamic systems and formulation of reduced-order aeroelasticmodels are presented below, where it is shown that depending on how thedisplacement and velocity inputs on the moving boundary are treated, twodifferent kinds of reduced-order aerodynamic and aeroelastic models maybe generated.

For a demonstration of the proposed method, two CFD models areconsidered in the examples below. They are the Vortex Lattice Model(VLM) for inviscid, subsonic, incompressible flow, and the CFL3D forviscous, transonic, compressible flow. Reduced-order aeroelastic modelsare also constructed by combining the reduced aerodynamic models and thestructural system. It is shown that not only does the new method shortenthe model construction time substantially, but the accuracy of theresulting reduced-order models is excellent. The proposed scheme has agreat potential as a linear system identification and model reductiontool for large-scaled systems subjected to multiple inputs.

With reference to FIG. 2, the SCI/ERA method 200 proceeds as follows.First, at a block 202, individual pulse responses are sampled for thefirst two time steps: $\begin{matrix}{Y^{0} = {\text{?}\begin{matrix}y_{1}^{0} & y_{2}^{0} & \ldots & y_{N_{i}}^{0}\end{matrix}\text{?}}} & (18) \\{{Y^{1} = {\text{?}\begin{matrix}y_{1}^{1} & y_{2}^{1} & \ldots & y_{N_{i}}^{1}\end{matrix}\text{?}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (19)\end{matrix}$

Next, at a block 204, an SCI is constructed as follows: $\begin{matrix}{b_{SCI}^{n} \equiv {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = 1}^{N_{i}}{b_{i}r_{i}^{n\quad}\quad\left( {{for}\quad{states}} \right)}}} & (20) \\{{d_{SCI}^{n} \equiv {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = 1}^{N_{i}}{d_{i}r_{i}^{n\quad}\quad\left( {{for}\quad{outputs}} \right)}}}{where}} & (21) \\{{{r^{n}\text{?}} \equiv {a\quad{sequence}\quad{of}\quad{arbitrary}\quad{numbers}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (22)\end{matrix}$

To ensure independency of the inputs, it is desirable that the signalsbe as uncorrelated as possible. In an ideal case they would bestatistically uncorrelated random signals, i.e., C_(ij)(m)=E[r^(n) _(i)r^(n−m) _(i)]0 for i≠j, but they are hard to construct for numericalanalysis.

Subject to the SCI, at a block 206, the SCI/ERA method 200 samples thesystem response y^(n) for n=0, 1, 2, . . . , M, to obtain:$\begin{matrix}{{y_{c0}^{n} \equiv {Cx}^{n}}\quad = {y^{n} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y^{n}\text{?}r^{n}\text{?}}}}} & (23) \\{{{y_{c1}^{n} \equiv {CAx}^{n}}\quad = {y^{n + 1} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y^{0}\text{?}r^{n + 1}\text{?}}} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y^{1}\text{?}r^{n}\text{?}}}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (24)\end{matrix}$

Note that y_(c0)^(n), y_(c1)^(n) are measurements of the states in thereduced dimension of C and C A.

Next, at a block 208, similar to the Hankel matrices, the SCI/ERA method200 defines the following Hankel-like matrices: $\begin{matrix}{{H_{c0} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}\quad = {C{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} & (25) \\{{{H_{c1} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}\quad = {{CA}{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}}{{SVD}\quad{of}\quad H_{c0}\quad{yields}}} & (26) \\{{H_{c0} \equiv {U{\sum V^{T}}}\quad \simeq {{{\begin{matrix}U_{R} & U_{D}\end{matrix}}\begin{bmatrix}\sum\limits_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}}\quad = {U_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}V_{R}^{T}}}}} & (27)\end{matrix}$where R≡rank(H_(co)). The size of the above matrices is N₀×(M−1), N_(i)times smaller than the previous H₀, H₁ defined in the Pulse/ERA.

Thus, at a block 210, the new realization is then $\begin{matrix}{D = Y^{0}} & (28) \\{{C \simeq {U_{R}\sum\limits_{R}^{1/2}}}\quad} & (29) \\{B \simeq {\sum\limits_{R}^{{- 1}/2}\quad{U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}}}} & (30) \\{{A \simeq {\sum\limits_{R}^{{- 1}/2}\quad{U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\sum\limits_{R}^{{- 1}/2}}}}\quad} & (31)\end{matrix}$

Unlike the Pulse/ERA method 100 described above with reference to FIG.1, the SCI/ERA method 200 may be optimal in that it may be balancedbetween states and outputs. As in the previous method 100, for anaccurate realization H_(co) must have (M−1)≧R and N₀≧R. However, usingthe SCI/ERA method 200 in accordance with the present invention, thetotal number of samples taken may be only M+1+2×N_(i) which is much lessthan the previous N_(i)×(M+1) when M samples of pulse response are takenfor each input.

It will be appreciated that compared to the prior art Pulse/ERA method100, embodiments of the present invention may advantageously require amuch smaller set of time measurements, thereby reducing significantlyboth the computation time and the bulk of the output data. Furthermore,the new H_(co), H_(ci) are constructed based on the sampled systemstates subjected to combined random inputs, and as such they are notdirectly related to the Markov parameters. However, at block 202embodiments of the present invention (e.g. the SCI/ERA method 200 shownin FIG. 2) do require the first two pulse responses y_(i)⁰ and y_(i)¹for each input in order to estimate the state measurements according toEquations (23) and (24).

Although the use of random signals is described, other types of signalscan also be used for the SCI provided that they are statisticallyindependent. For a linear system, any arbitrary response contains thefundamental characteristics under the assumption that the system iscontrollable and observable. Embodiments of the present invention mayadvantageously employ this principle, along with the principle ofsuperposition.

An alternate embodiment to the SCI/ERA method discussed above will nowbe described. As stated above, an important requirement in any ERAmethod is that to improve the accuracy of the model construction, onemust have a sufficient number of output measurements, more than thenumber of singular modes that are extractable from the Hankel orHankel-like matrices. Failure to satisfy this requirement implies thatwe don't have enough modes to approximate the system response. When therequirement is not met, assuming again that (A, C) is observable we canexpand the data matrices by sampling additional responses as follows:$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c\quad\text{?}} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}\left\lbrack {x^{1}x^{2}\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}} \right\rbrack}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1} \\y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{cK}^{1} & y_{cK}^{2} & \ldots & y_{cK}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix} & (32) \\{\begin{matrix}{H_{c\quad\text{?}} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}{A\left\lbrack {x^{1}x^{2}\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}} \right\rbrack}}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\y_{c2}^{1} & y_{c2}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c2}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{{cK} + 1}^{1} & y_{{cK} + 1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{{cK} + 1}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix}{where}} & (33) \\{\begin{matrix}{y_{ck}^{n} = {{CA}^{k}x\text{?}}} \\{= {y^{n + k} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = \text{?}}^{\text{?}}\quad{y\text{?}}} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = \text{?}}^{\text{?}}\quad{y\text{?}}} - \ldots\quad -}} \\{\sum\limits_{\text{?} = \text{?}}^{\text{?}}\quad{y\text{?}}} \\{y^{n + k} - {\sum\limits_{\text{?} = \text{?}}^{\text{?}}\quad{\sum\limits_{\text{?} = \text{?}}^{\text{?}}\quad{y\text{?}}}}}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (34)\end{matrix}$

-   -   SVD of the new H_(c0) leads to $\begin{matrix}        \begin{matrix}        {H_{c01} \equiv {U_{1}{\sum\limits_{i}\quad V_{1}^{T}}}} \\        {\simeq {{\left\lbrack {U_{1R}U_{1D}} \right\rbrack\begin{bmatrix}        {\sum\limits_{1R}\quad} & 0 \\        0 & 0        \end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}        V_{1R}^{T} \\        V_{1D}^{T}        \end{bmatrix}}} \\        {= {U_{1R}{\sum\limits_{1R}^{1/2}\quad{\sum\limits_{1R}^{1/2}V_{1R}^{T}}}}}        \end{matrix} & (35)        \end{matrix}$    -   from which we obtain $\begin{matrix}        {D = {{the}\quad{first}\quad N\text{?}\quad{rows}\quad{of}\quad Y^{0}}} & (36) \\        {{C \simeq {{the}\quad{first}\quad N\text{?}\quad{rows}\quad{of}\quad U_{1R}\sum\limits_{1R}^{1/2}}}\quad} & (37) \\        {B \simeq {\sum\limits_{1R}^{{- 1}/2}\quad{U_{1R}^{T}Y_{c}^{1}}}} & (38) \\        {A \simeq {\sum\limits_{1R}^{{- 1}/2}\quad{U_{1R}^{T}H_{c11}V_{1R}{\sum\limits_{1R}^{{- 1}/2}\quad{where}}}}} & (39) \\        {{Y_{c}^{n} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}        y_{1}^{n} & y_{2}^{n} & \ldots & {y^{n}\text{?}} \\        y_{1}^{n + 1} & y_{2}^{n + 1} & \ldots & {y\text{?}} \\        \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\        y_{1}^{n + K + 1} & y_{2}^{n + K + 1} & \ldots & {y^{n + K + 1}\text{?}}        \end{bmatrix}\left( {n = 0.1} \right)}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (40)        \end{matrix}$

Using this alternate approach, the total number of measurementsavailable is now (K+1)×N₀. It is noted that the additional time samplesare required for the pulse response as well as for the response due tothe SCI. More specifically, if K blocks of outputs are to be added pulseresponses due to each input must be sampled at K additional time stepsin addition the first two time steps,? = 0  and  ? = Δ  ?.?indicates text missing or illegible when filedAlso, the response due to the SCI must be sampled at K additional stepsbeyond the M-th step. The total number of samples to be taken is thusM+1+K+(2+K)×N_(i). K should desirably be sufficiently large enough tosatisfy the measurement requirement, (K+1)×N₀≧R. Needless to say, thisalternate scheme requires extra computation time because of theadditional time samples required in the data set.

A few candidate signals for the SCI will now be described. For an ideallinear model any of these SCIs can be used and all of them should yieldROMs of essentially the same quality.

As noted above, random signals may be used for construction of SCI. Thisapproach may be referred to as random inputs SCI (RSCI). That is, use$\begin{matrix}{r_{i}^{n} \equiv {a\quad{sequence}\quad{of}\quad{random}\quad{numbers}}} & (41)\end{matrix}$in Equations (20) and (21) above.

Alternately, a filtered inputs based SCI (FSCI) may be employed. Morespecifically, to inject smooth inputs, one can filter the random signalsthrough a low-pass filter. That is, $\begin{matrix}{\begin{matrix}{\text{?} = \text{?}} \\{\equiv {a\quad{sequence}\quad{of}\quad{filtered}\quad{random}\quad{numbers}}}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (42)\end{matrix}$

Using such low frequency signals may allow better convergence whenapplying the SCI to CFD models. Furthermore, since the frequency contentis limited, it is possible to generate a smaller ROM directly from theSCI/ERA without any further reduction. A potential drawback is that ifthe filtered signals become too narrowly banded, they may not be asuncorrelated as desired. However, based on the theory of ergodicity [9],the statistical independence could be fortified by using longer signalsand sampling the response for a longer period of time. (see, e.g.,Papoulis, A., Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes,McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y., 1982, incorporated herein byreference).

In another approach, a step input based SCI (SCCI) may be used. Inanalogy to a single step input, one can apply multiple step inputs in asequential manner: $\begin{matrix}{\begin{matrix}{\text{?} = \text{?}} \\{\equiv {{a\quad{step}\quad{input}\quad{applied}\quad{at}\quad\text{?}} - {\text{?}\quad{step}}}}\end{matrix}{where}} & (43) \\{{\text{?} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}0 & \left( {{n = 1},2,\ldots\quad,{\text{?} - 1}} \right) \\1 & \left( {n \geq \text{?}} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (44)\end{matrix}$

To assure independence of the inputs, the onsets of the signals shouldbe apart from each other by a sufficient number of steps, i.e., k_(i)must be large enough.

Similarly, in another alternate approach, a pulse input based SCI (PSCI)may be used. In this approach, one can also apply multiple pulse inputsin a sequential manner: $\begin{matrix}{\begin{matrix}{\text{?} = \text{?}} \\{\equiv {{a\quad{step}\quad{input}\quad{applied}\quad{at}\quad\text{?}} - {\text{?}\quad{step}}}}\end{matrix}{where}} & (45) \\{{\text{?} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}1 & \left( {n = \text{?}} \right) \\0 & \left( {n = {{all}\quad{other}\quad{points}}} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (46)\end{matrix}$

Again, k_(i) should be large enough to ensure independency of theapplied signals.

Yet another alternate embodiment to the SCI/ERA methods discussed abovewill now be described. In applications of discrete-time computationalmodels, there exist two conflicting requirements for the incrementaltime step Δt. For numerical convergence, one should adopt a sufficientlysmall Δt₁. On the other hand, given the highest frequency of interest,ω_(c,) the Nyquist criterion requires${\Delta\quad t_{2}} \leq {{\frac{\text{?}}{\omega_{c}}.\text{?}}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}$Usually, for practical purposes Δz₂ ⪢ Δz₁.

For instance, in a structural model that is coupled with a CFD model foraeroelastic applications, the highest mode usually has a much lowernatural frequency than the highest frequency content in the aerodynamicmodel. If the signals used in the SCI/ERA methods are sharp as in therandom, step, or pulse inputs, the SCI will excite all the systemdynamics and hence this characteristic will be carried over to the ERAbased reduced-order model. As a result, the ERA reduced-order model(ROM) may be prone to have a large dimension to span the same highfrequency range as the original full-order model (FOM), which suggeststhat there may be room for further order reduction in the ROM.

To perform a second order reduction, one can apply the Frequency-DomainKarhunen-Loeve (FDKL) method to the ERA ROM defined by matrices,(28)-(31), wherein frequency samples of the system within the givenfrequency range, (−ω_(c), ω_(c)) are used to extract optimal modes, anda new reduced-order model is constructed via the Galerkin'sapproximation. (see, e.g., Kim, T., Discrete-Time Eigen Analysis andOptimal Model Reduction for Flutter & Aeroelastic Damping/FrequencyPrediction Based On CFL3D-ERA, B-ADVTECH-LLL-M02-013, BCAG, February2003, incorporated herein by reference). In this embodiment, the optimalor so called KL modes Ø_(i), are the eigenmodes of the covariance matrixK: $\begin{matrix}{{{K\quad\phi\text{?}} = {\lambda_{i}\phi\text{?}}}{where}} & (47) \\{{K\text{?}} \equiv {{X\left( \omega_{i} \right)}{X\left( \omega_{j} \right)}\text{?}}} & (48) \\{\begin{matrix}{\omega_{ij} \equiv {{sampling}\quad{frequencies}}} \\{\left\lbrack {\omega_{1}\quad\omega_{2}\quad\ldots\quad\omega\text{?}} \right\rbrack}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (49)\end{matrix}$

-   -   where ω₁=−ω_(c) and ω_(M)=ω_(c). X(ω_(i)) are the frequency        solutions of the ERA ROM subjected to the single-composite-input        described by (20) and (21) except that it is prescribed in the        frequency domain. Once the optimal modes are obtained, assume        $\begin{matrix}        {x \simeq {\Phi\quad p\quad{where}}} & (50) \\        {\Phi \equiv {{\phi_{1}\phi_{2}\ldots\quad\phi\text{?}}}} & (51) \\        {{p \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}        p_{1} \\        p_{2} \\        {p\text{?}}        \end{Bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (52)        \end{matrix}$

R₁ is set to be equal to the rank of the covariance matrix which isusually smaller than R.

After inserting (50) into (1) and (2) with the ERA ROM matrices,premultiplying both sides by Φ^(T) yields a new reduced-order model asp ^(n+1) =A ₁ p ^(n) +B _(i) u ^(n)  (53)Y ^(n) =C ₁ p ^(n) +D _(u) ^(n)  (54)whereA_(1≡Φ) ^(T)AΦ  (55)B₁≡Φ^(T)B  (56)C₁≡CΦ  (57)

The dimension of the new model is (R₁×R₁).

Application of various embodiments of methods and systems torepresentative, large-scaled CFD models will now be described. Unlikethe general system described by Equations (1) and (2), an unsteady fluiddynamic system is driven by displacement and velocity of its movingboundary surface simultaneously as they both contribute to the normaldownwash on the surface. If one considers a statically nonlinear,dynamically linearized flow field, the unsteady fluid motion can bedescribed asx ^(n+1) =Ax ^(n) +B ₀ u ^(n) +B ₁ {dot over (u)} ^(n)  (58)y ^(n) =q(Cx ^(n) +D ₀ u ^(n) +D ₁ {dot over (u)} ^(n))  (59)wherex≡(L×1) fluid states  (60)u≡(N_(i)×1) generalized displacements  (61){dot over (u)}≡(N_(i)×1) generalized velocities  (62)y≡(N_(i)×1) generalized aerodynamic forces  (63)q≡dynamic pressure  (64)

It is noted that the above equations progress in non-dimensional time,${\tau \equiv \frac{V\text{?}}{\text{?}}},{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}$rather than in the real time t and ({dot over ( )}) is the firstderivative with respect to T. In fact, the dependency of the normaldownwash on air speed disappears when the equations are discretized inT, as in Equations (58) and (59). The structural degrees of freedom,u_(i) are the generalized coordinates associated with structural modes.These modes are used to describe the motion of the lifting surface. Twodifferent types of reduced-order fluid dynamic models can be obtaineddepending on how the inputs are treated. If necessary, the FDKL/SCI canbe performed for additional reduction.

In one particular embodiment, a method in accordance with the inventionmay be applied to an aerodynamic ROM with displacement and velocityinputs. In this embodiment, one can treat u^(n) and {dot over (u)}^(n)separately as independent inputs. Thus, for the pulse inputs$\begin{matrix}{{{u\text{?}} = {{\overset{.}{u}\text{?}} = {{\delta\text{?}} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}1 & \left( {n = 0} \right) \\0 & \left( {{n = 1},2,\ldots\quad,M} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (65)\end{matrix}$

-   -   for i=1, 2, . . . , N_(i), we obtain the corresponding responses        y_(i)⁰, y_(i)¹ at the first two time steps. Let us define        $\begin{matrix}        {Y^{0} = \left\lbrack {y_{1}^{2}y_{2}^{0}\ldots\quad y_{N_{i}}^{0}y_{N_{i} + 1}^{0}y_{N_{i} + 2}^{0}\ldots\quad y_{2N_{i}}^{0}} \right\rbrack} & (66) \\        {Y^{1} = \left\lbrack {y_{1}^{1}y_{2}^{1}\ldots\quad y_{N_{i}}^{1}y_{N_{i} + 1}^{1}y_{N_{i} + 2}^{1}\ldots\quad y_{2N_{i}}^{1}} \right\rbrack} & (67)        \end{matrix}$    -   where the first N_(i) samples are due to the pulses in u^(n) and        the next N_(i) ones are due to the pulses in {dot over (u)}^(n).        Next, we prepare the following inputs, $\begin{matrix}        {b_{SCI}^{n} \equiv {{\sum\limits_{\text{?}}^{N_{i}}{b_{0\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}} + {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{b_{1\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}}}} & (68) \\        {{d_{SCI}^{n} \equiv {{\sum\limits_{\text{?}}^{N_{i}}{d_{0\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}} + {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{d_{1\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (69)        \end{matrix}$

Subject to the SCI, we sample the system response y^(n) and get$\begin{matrix}{y_{c0}^{n} \equiv {y^{n} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{2N_{i}}{y_{\overset{.}{u}}^{0}r\text{?}}}}} & (70) \\{{y_{c1}^{n} \equiv {y^{n + 1} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{2N_{i}}{y_{\overset{.}{u}}^{0}r\text{?}}} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{2N_{i}}{y_{\overset{.}{u}}^{0}r\text{?}}}}}{Define}} & (71) \\{H_{c0} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}} & (72) \\{{H_{c1} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (73)\end{matrix}$

-   -   where SVD of H_(c0) yields $\begin{matrix}        {{H_{c0} \equiv {U{\sum V^{T}}}\quad \simeq {{{\begin{matrix}        U_{R} & U_{D}        \end{matrix}}\begin{bmatrix}        \sum\limits_{R} & 0 \\        0 & 0        \end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}        V_{R}^{T} \\        V_{D}^{T}        \end{bmatrix}}}\quad = {U_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}V_{R}^{T}}}}} & (74)        \end{matrix}$    -   with R≡rank(H_(c0)). Hence, the reduced-order model is given by        $\begin{matrix}        {D_{0} = {{the}\quad{first}\quad N_{i}\quad{columns}\quad{of}\quad Y^{0}}} & (75) \\        {D_{1} = {{the}\quad{second}\quad N_{i}\quad{columns}\quad{of}\quad Y^{0}}} & (76) \\        {C \simeq {U_{R}\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}}} & (77) \\        {B_{0} \simeq {{the}\quad{first}\quad N_{i}\quad{columns}\quad{of}\quad{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}{U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}}}}} & (78) \\        {B_{1} \simeq {{the}\quad{second}\quad N_{i}\quad{columns}\quad{of}\quad{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}{U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}}}}} & (79) \\        {A \simeq {\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}{U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{{- 1}/2}}}}} & (80)        \end{matrix}$

In yet another particular embodiment, a method in accordance with theinvention may be applied to an aerodynamic ROM with only thedisplacements as the system inputs. This is possible by applyingsimultaneously the pulse and double pulse inputs, $\begin{matrix}{u_{i}^{n} = {\delta^{n} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}1 & \left( {n = 0} \right) \\0 & \left( {{n = 1},2,\ldots\quad,M} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}} & (81) \\{{\overset{.}{u}}_{i}^{n} = {\delta^{n} \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}\frac{1}{\Delta\quad z} & \left( {n = 0} \right) \\{- \frac{1}{\Delta\tau}} & \left( {n = 1} \right) \\0 & \left( {{n = 2},3,\ldots\quad,M} \right)\end{Bmatrix}}} & (82)\end{matrix}$

-   -   and get the corresponding responses y_(d  i)⁰y_(d  i)¹        at the first two time steps: $\begin{matrix}        {Y_{d}^{0} = \left\lbrack {y_{d\quad 1}^{0}\quad y_{d\quad 2}^{0}\quad\ldots\quad y_{{dN}_{i}}^{0}} \right\rbrack} & (83) \\        {Y_{d}^{1} = \left\lbrack {y_{d\quad 1}^{1}\quad y_{d\quad 2}^{1}\quad\ldots\quad y_{{dN}_{i}}^{1}} \right\rbrack} & (84)        \end{matrix}$

For a new SCI, we use $\begin{matrix}{{b_{SCI}\text{?}} \equiv {{\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{b_{0\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}} + {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{b_{1\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}}}} & (85) \\{{{d_{SCI}\text{?}} \equiv {{\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{d_{0\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}} + {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{d_{1\overset{.}{u}}\text{?}}}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (86)\end{matrix}$

-   -   where i_(i)^(n)        are discrete-time derivative of i_(i)^(n).        To be consistent with the use of the double pulse defined in        (82), i_(i)^(n)        are obtained by filtering i_(i)^(n)  via  δ_(i)^(n), i.e.,        $\begin{matrix}        {i_{i}^{n} \equiv {{conv}\left( {i_{i}^{k},\delta_{i}^{k}} \right)}} & (87)        \end{matrix}$    -   which is equivalent to the backward difference equation,        $\begin{matrix}        {{r_{\overset{.}{u}}^{n} \equiv \frac{{r\text{?}} - {r\text{?}}}{\Delta\quad\tau}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (88)        \end{matrix}$

Subject to the new SCI we sample the system response y^(n) and get$\begin{matrix}{y_{dc0}^{n} \equiv {y^{n} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{d\overset{.}{u}}^{0}r_{\overset{.}{u}}^{n}}}}} & (89) \\{{y_{dc1}^{n} \equiv {y^{n + 1} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{d\overset{.}{u}}^{0}r_{\overset{.}{u}}^{n + 1}}} - {\sum\limits_{\overset{.}{u} = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{d\overset{.}{u}}^{1}r_{\overset{.}{u}}^{n + 1}}}}}{Defining}} & (90) \\{H_{dc0} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{dc0}^{1} & y_{dc0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{dc0}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}} & (91) \\{H_{dc1} \equiv {\begin{matrix}y_{dc1}^{1} & y_{dc1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{dc1}^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}} & (92)\end{matrix}$

-   -   the SVD of H_(dc0) yields $\begin{matrix}        {{H_{dc0} \equiv {U{\sum V^{T}}}\quad \simeq {{{\begin{matrix}        U_{R} & U_{D}        \end{matrix}}\begin{bmatrix}        \sum\limits_{R} & 0 \\        0 & 0        \end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}        V_{R}^{T} \\        V_{D}^{T}        \end{bmatrix}}}\quad = {U_{R}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}{\underset{R}{\sum\limits^{1/2}}V_{R}^{T}}}}} & (93)        \end{matrix}$        with R≡rank(H_(dc0)). The new reduced-order model has only N_(i)        input channels and is in the form $\begin{matrix}        {{x\text{?}} = {{Ax}^{n} + {Bu}^{n}}} & (94) \\        {y^{n} = {{q\left( {{Cx}^{n} + {Du}^{n}} \right)}\quad{where}}} & (95) \\        {D = {Y^{0}\text{?}}} & (96) \\        {C \simeq {U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}}} & (97) \\        {B \simeq {\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}\text{?}}} & (98) \\        {{A \simeq {\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}H\text{?}V_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (99)        \end{matrix}$

Embodiments of aeroelastic systems in accordance with the presentinvention can be constructed using the embodiments of reduced-orderaerodynamic models described above. For example, in one embodiment, wefirst note that structural model is normally described in real,continuous-time:mü+c{dot over (u)}+ku=y  (100)({dot over ( )}) and ({umlaut over ( )}) respectively, represent thefirst and the second derivatives with respect to t. Hence, to constructaeroelastic model the continuous-time equation (100) is discretized intime: $\begin{matrix}{z^{n + 1} = {{A_{s}z^{n}} + {B_{s}y^{n}}}} & (101) \\{u^{n} = {C\text{?}z^{n}\quad{where}}} & (102) \\{z \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}u \\\overset{.}{u}\end{Bmatrix}} & (103) \\{{{C\text{?}} \equiv \begin{bmatrix}I & 0\end{bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (104)\end{matrix}$Note that given ΔT and V the consistent incremental time step${{\Delta\text{?}} = \frac{\Delta\text{?}}{V}},{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}$must be used in the conversion to the discrete-time.

Aeroelastic Model I

In this approach, we treat the displacement and velocity, u^(n), {dotover (u)}^(n) as independent inputs and apply the b_(SCi) ^(n), d_(SCI)^(n) given by Eqs. (68) and (69) at a reference dynamic pressure,$\text{?}_{ref} \equiv {\frac{1}{2}\text{?}_{ref}{V_{ref}^{2}.\text{?}}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}$The corresponding samples are taken and scaled by${\frac{1}{\text{?}_{ref}}.\text{?}}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}$The ROM of the first kind described above is then obtained by applyingthe SCI/ERA. An aeroelastic system that is valid at all V can beconstructed by combining the resulting aerodynamic ROM with thestructural equations: $\begin{matrix}{X^{n + 1} = {A\text{?}X^{n}\quad{where}}} & (105) \\{X \equiv \begin{Bmatrix}x \\z\end{Bmatrix}} & (106) \\{{{A\text{?}} \equiv \left\lceil \begin{matrix}A & {{B\text{?}B_{1}}} \\{{qB}_{5}C} & {A_{s} + {{qB}\text{?}{{D\text{?}D_{1}}}}}\end{matrix} \right\rbrack}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (107)\end{matrix}$

Denoting the eigenvalues of system matrix (107) as$\lambda_{{dl},{\overset{.}{z}:}},$the aeroelastic eigenvalues in the Laplace domain are obtained as$\begin{matrix}{{\lambda = \frac{\log\left( {\lambda\text{?}} \right)}{\Delta\text{?}}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (108)\end{matrix}$

For flutter instability, one must have${{Real}\left( .^{{{\lambda dl},{\overset{.}{z}:}}\quad} \right)} > {0\quad{and}\quad{\left. I \right.\sim\sim{^{\lambda_{{dl},{\overset{.}{z}:}}}}}} > 1$for any i.

Aeroelastic Model II.

One can also apply the b_(SCI:)^(n)d_(SCI)^(n)given by Equations (85) and (86) and get the ROM of the second kinddescribed above. This will produce aerodynamic system matrices, A, B, C,and D where B, D each has only N_(i) columns. The new resultingreduced-order aeroelastic model can be obtained as $\begin{matrix}{{{X\text{?}} = {A\text{?}X\text{?}}}{where}} & (109) \\{{{A\text{?}} \equiv \begin{bmatrix}A & {{BC}\text{?}} \\{{qB}\text{?}C} & {{A\text{?}} + {{qB}\text{?}{DC}\text{?}}}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (110)\end{matrix}$

Although q can change in Equation (110), this model must be used only atthe reference air speed V_(ref). Given a local angle of attack u,plunging rate {dot over (u)}, and local air speed V the totalaerodynamic downwash at the moving boundary is {dot over (u)}+V u and assuch it is impossible to separate out and account for the effect of Vwithout having both the displacement and velocity channels. However,this drawback is easily remedied by adjusting the incremental time stepaccording to ${\Delta\text{?}} = \frac{\Delta\text{?}}{V}$?indicates text missing or illegible when filedwhen the air speed changes from one value to another and discretizingthe structural model based on the new Δt. That is, if one leaves the Vdependency in the structure, $\begin{matrix}{{{A\text{?}} \equiv \begin{bmatrix}A & {{BC}\text{?}} \\{{qB}\text{?}(V)C} & {{qB}\text{?}(V){DC}\text{?}}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (111)\end{matrix}$then the Aeroelastic Model II becomes valid for all air speeds.

To demonstrate an embodiment of the present invention, an unsteadyvortex lattice aerodynamic model subjected to several structural modeinputs may be considered. For example, FIG. 3 is a schematic view of avortex lattice formulation 300 for computing an unsteady flow fieldaround a flat, rectangular wing 302 in accordance with an embodiment ofthe present invention. In this embodiment, the unsteady flow field ismodeled as an incompressible, subsonic air flow. In this example, thewing 302 is 3 inches wide and 12 inches long, has 10 and 20 vortexelements in the chordwise and spanwise directions, respectively. A freewake 304 has 40 and 20 vortex elements in the streamwise and spanwisedirections, creating a total of 800 degrees of freedom. (see Kim, T.,Nam, C., and Kim, Y., 1997, Reduced-Order Aeroservoelastic Model with anUnsteady Aerodynamic Eigen Formulation, AIAA Journal, Vol. 35, No. 6,pp. 1087-1088, incorporated herein by reference). The wing structure ismodeled using 6 vibrational (3 bending and 3 torsional) modes (seeCrawley, E. F., and Dugundji, J., 1980, Frequency Determination andNon-Dimensionalization for Composite Cantilever Plates, Journal Soundand Vibration, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 1-10, incorporated herein byreference).

No structural damping was introduced in this example. Thus, the size ofthe full-order aeroelastic model is (812×812).

For the Aeroelastic Model I the reference air density and speed 306 wereset at 1.23 kg/r³, 80 m/sec, respectively. The incremental time at thisreference speed is ${\Delta\text{?}} = \frac{dz}{\text{?}}$?indicates text missing or illegible when filed9.525×10⁻⁵ sec. For the sampling of the vortex model, 480 extra outputswere extracted in addition to the 6 generalized aerodynamic forces at481 time steps. Applying 12 sets of random signal inputs simultaneously,6 for u^(n), 6 for {dot over (u)}^(n), yielded a single set of sampleddata. 12 pulse inputs were also applied individually at the first twotime steps to generate Y^(o) and Y¹.

FIG. 4 shows three sets of random numbers 402, 404, 406 generated asinputs to the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 using the well-knownMATLAB computer program. Out of 481 time samples, the SVD produced 413linearly independent singular modes. This number was determined by therank of H_(c0) matrix. Thus, the size of the aerodynamic ROM became(413×413). The reduced-order aerodynamic model was then coupled with thestructural model to create (425×425) aeroelastic model (ROM I.).

For the Aeroelastic Model II. the reference air density and speed wereagain set at 1.23 kg/m³, and 80 m/sec. 6 sets of random signals and 6sets of discrete-time derivatives of the random signals were applied foru^(n) and {dot over (u)}^(n) using 481 time steps and the 486 outputmeasurements. This yielded (329×329) aerodynamic ROM which when combinedwith the structural system, produced (341×341) aeroelastic model (ROMII.). It is noted that ROM II. is approximately 20% smaller than ROM I.as a result of using only the half of the input channels.

Next, the dimensions of the reduced-order aerodynamic models werefurther decreased using the FDKL/SCI method. As mentioned earlier, theincremental time step embedded in both the FOM and SCI/ERA ROM is toosmall to be effective for various aeroelastic simulations which usuallyinvolve a low frequency range. Considering that the highest freevibrational frequency of the structural modes is 4,160 rad/sec, thesampling range in the FDKL method was restricted to (−4,500, 4,500)rad/sec. For the ROM I., out of 174 frequency samples within the range129 KL modes were selected based on the rank of the covariance matrix KHence, the size of the new reduced-order aerodynamic and aeroelasticmodels (ROM I.-FDKL) became 129 and 141, respectively. Likewise, for theROM II. 97 KL modes out of 130 frequency samples in the same frequencyrange were selected yielding new (109×109) aeroelastic model (ROMII.-FDKL). For computational efficiency, these reduced-order models areto be preferred over the ROM I. and ROM II.

FIG. 5 shows three sets of generalized aerodynamic forces 500 computedusing the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3. Specifically, FIG. 5shows (6×6) generalized aerodynamic forces for V=80 m/sec obtained fromthe FOM, ROM I.-FDKL, and ROM II.-FDKL models (FOM (800), ROM I.-FDKL(129), and ROM II.-FDKL (97)), in the nondimensional time, T. It is seenthat despite the cut-off frequency range present in the latter twomodels, they reproduce the pulse aerodynamic responses of the originalmodel very well.

FIGS. 6 and 7 show two different scales of the aeroelastic eigenvalues600, 700 of the various models in the s domain at V=80 m/sec. It is seenthat many eigenvalues of the reduced-order aeroelastic models match verywell with those of the full model (FIG. 6). More specifically, the 12complex eigenvalues associated with 6 structural modes agree very wellbetween the FOM and ROMs, although the higher structural modes (5th and6th) in the ROM II. and ROM II.-FDKL are slightly mismatched (FIG. 7).Also noteworthy is that all the eigenvalues of the ROM I.-FDKL and ROMII.-FDKL are approximately within the specified bound, (−4,500, 4,500)rad/sec as the model was obtained based on frequency samples in therange.

FIGS. 8 and 9 show time responses of the first two structural modes 800,900 due to an initial condition in ü₁. It can be seen that the threesets of curves are practically indistinguishable from each other.

Similarly, FIGS. 10-13 show the aeroelastic results at V=121.2 m/sec.Specifically, FIG. 10 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues 1000computed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a first scalefor V=121.2 m/sec. FIG. 11 shows a set of aeroelastic eigenvalues 1100computed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3 at a secondscale for V=121.2 m/sec. FIG. 12 shows a time response 1200 of the firststructural mode computed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3for V=121.2 m/sec. And FIG. 13 shows a time response 1300 of the secondstructural mode computed using the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3for V=121.2 m/sec. As can be seen from these figures, the wing is on theverge of flutter at this speed. It may be noted how accurately the ROMI.-FDKL is able to reproduce neutrally stable, sinusoidal time responses(FIGS. 12-13). However, the ROM II.-FDKL exhibits a noticeable but minorerror in producing the transient response.

FIG. 14 shows a graph 1400 of model construction time of VLM ERA ROMsversus number of inputs for the vortex lattice formulation of FIG. 3.Using FIG. 14, the model construction time may be compared between thetwo ERA methods. In order to obtain accurate and consistent singularmodes, H_(c0), H_(c1) matrices were kept as square as possible bykeeping the number of time samples approximately equal to the totalnumber of measurements which is the sum of the number of generalizedaerodynamic forces and the number of auxiliary measurements. The samenumbers of time steps and auxiliary outputs were used both in thePulse/ERA and Sd/ERA. Thus, in the first case where only the firstbending mode alone excites the flow field, M=131, N₀=131. In the secondcase where the first bending and first torsional modes were included,M=251, N₀=252, and in the third case where the first bending andtorsional as well as the second bending modes excite the aerodynamicfield, M=281, N₀=283. 4 and 5 inputs were also used with M=331, N₀=334and M=411, N₀=415, respectively.

FIG. 15 shows CPU seconds spent constructing various models inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention (Note that FIG. 14was obtained based on the data in FIG. 15). Specifically, Table 1 ofFIG. 15 shows CPU seconds spent in constructing ROM I. on a SGI machine.Also presented in parenthesis are the dimensions of the correspondingreduced-order models. Table 2. shows CPU seconds consumed for ROM II. onthe SGI machine. The numbers shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 represent totalCPU seconds spent not only in sampling the response but also processingthe data in the subsequent ERA schemes. As seen in FIGS. 14 and 15, thenew method clearly has an advantage over the Pulse/ERA in reducing themodel construction time yielding saving factors of multiple numbers.Needless to say, as the number of inputs increases so does the saving.It is interesting that for a given number of inputs both ERA methodsgenerate ROMs of very similar sizes. As expected, ROM II of the SCI/ERAare as small as 80% of the corresponding ROM I. Despite the differentinput channels, both SCI/ERA ROM I. and ROM II. require approximatelythe same CPU time implying that in the SCI/ERA the overall computationtime is not very sensitive to the number of inputs;

In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the SCI/ERA methodhas also been applied to unsteady aerodynamic systems modeled by CFL3Dcode. CFL3D is a finite element program that based on the Navier-Stokesequations models nonlinear viscous, compressible fluid motion insubsonic as well as transonic flow fields. (see Krist, S. L., Biedron,R. T., and Rumsey, C. L., CFLSD User's Manual (Version 5.0), The NASALangley Research Center, Hampton, Va.). Although CFL3D describesstatically and dynamically nonlinear flow, when subjected to a smallamplitude it predicts dynamically linearized behavior of the flow fieldaround the nonlinear static position in the form of Equations (58) and(59). For most practical aeroelastic analyses such as flutter predictionand dynamic gust loads calculation, the small amplitude approximationyields sufficiently accurate results.

The aeroelastic formulation for the CFD code is slightly different thanfor the vortex lattice case in that the second aerodynamic modeldiscussed above is used but whenever the air speed V is changed theincremental time step Δt is adjusted accordingly when discretizing thestructural model, Equation (100). As in the Aeroelastic Model I, theresulting model can account for the effect of changing the free streamspeed.

For example, FIG. 16 is a representative CFD simulation model 1600 inaccordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In thisembodiment, the airplane configuration under consideration is that ofthe Twin-Engine-Transport-Flutter-Model (TETFM). The aerodynamic grid isgiven by the so called the Wing-Pencil-Nacelle (WPN) model with thestrut between the wing and nacelle omitted. The structural motion isdescribed by 10 structural modes, resulting in total of 10 generalizedaerodynamic forces per a mode shape.

The computational aerodynamic model consists of approximately 700,000cells and 30 blocks. For detailed description of the modeling, see Hong,M. S., Bhatia, K. G., SenGupta, G., Kim, T., Kuruvila, G., Silva, W. A.,Bartels, and R., Biedron, R., Simulations of a Twin-Engine TransportFlutter Model In the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel, IFASD Paper 2003-US-44,incorporated herein by reference. Also, the details of the computationalmodel and construction of the aerodynamic and aeroelastic ROMs based onthe SCI/ERA using various types of input signals mentioned earlier isdescribed more fully in Kim, T., Hong, M. S., Bhatia, K. G., SenGupta,G., Aeroelastic Model Reduction for an Affordable CFD Based FlutterAnalysis, AIAA Paper 2004-2040, published subsequent to the filing ofthe present application and incorporated herein by reference.

FIG. 17 shows four structural mode shapes 1700 used for the CFDsimulation model 1600 of FIG. 16.

FIG. 18 shows a V-g plot 1800 of the two different aeroelastic models inaccordance with the previous and an embodiment of the present invention,respectively. The WPN model was examined at M=0.831. With Δt=3.34×10⁻⁴sec and 995 time steps, aerodynamic ROMs were created using both thePulse/ERA and SSCI/ERA methods based on the displacement methoddescribed earlier (ROM II.). The size of the aerodynamic ROMs is(512×512). Given the 10 mode inputs, the total number of time stepsconsumed in the time marching required for the SCI/ERA process was995+81×10=1805. On the other hand, the traditional ERA required total of10×995=9,950. Using a single CPU of IBM/Regatta machine, the total CPUhours for the Pulse/ERA calculation was 366 while the SSCI/ERA requiredonly 64 hours. Thus, the computational cost was reduced by a factor of5.7. As shown in FIG. 18, the two ROMs match very well in fluttercharacteristics predicting the two flutter points within just 0.13% and0.36% differences, respectively.

In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, efficienttime-domain model reduction/system identification techniques have beenpresented and demonstrated for linear dynamic systems that are subjectedto multiple right-hand-side inputs. Methods and systems in accordancewith the present invention do not require modifying the original codeand take only input and output data for the model construction.Furthermore, methods in accordance with the present invention are basedon a direct singular value decomposition of the output measurements thatare not necessarily attributed to pulse inputs but due to multiplesignal inputs applied simultaneously at the input channels. Compared tothe Pulse/ERA, the SCI/ERA methods disclosed herein can significantlyreduce the model construction time and compress the amount of outputdata. Therefore, such methods and systems are very attractive forlarge-scaled dynamic systems with multiple driving inputs such as CFDmodels wherein the moving boundary input is often described by manystructural modes.

While preferred and alternate embodiments of the invention have beenillustrated and described, as noted above, many changes can be madewithout departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.Accordingly, the scope of the invention is not limited by the disclosureof the preferred and alternate embodiments. Instead, the inventionshould be determined entirely by reference to the claims that follow.

1. A method of model reduction and system identification of a dynamicsystem with multiple inputs, comprising: generating a plurality ofstatistically independent random numbers for use as input signals; andperforming a singular-value-decomposition directly on a system responseof the dynamic system due to a simultaneous excitation of the pluralityof input signals.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising samplingindividual pulse responses for a first time step and a second time step.3. The method of claim 1, further comprising sampling a system responsey^(n) for n=0, 1, 2, . . . M.
 4. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising defining Hankel-like matrices H_(c0) and H_(c1) as follows:$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {{y_{c0}^{1}\quad y_{c0}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c0}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {C{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (25) \\\begin{matrix}{H_{c1} \equiv {{y_{c1}^{1}\quad y_{c1}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c1}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {{CA}{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (26) \\{{{SVD}\quad{of}\quad H_{c0}\quad{yields}}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {U\quad\Sigma\quad V^{T}}} \\{\text{?}{{{{U_{R}\quad U_{D}}}\begin{bmatrix}\Sigma_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}} \\{= {U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}V_{R}^{T}}}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (27)\end{matrix}$
 5. The method of claim 4, further comprising obtainingsystem matrices (A, B, C, D) by a least square approximation as follows:$\begin{matrix}{D = Y^{0}} & (28) \\{C\text{?}U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}} & (29) \\{B\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}} & (30) \\{{A\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (31)\end{matrix}$
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein (M−1)≧R and N₀≧R.
 7. Themethod of claim 4, wherein a total number of input samples is equal toM+1+2×N_(i).
 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising definingaugmented H_(c01) and H_(c11), matrices as follows: $\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c01} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1} \\y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{cK}^{1} & y_{cK}^{2} & \ldots & y_{cK}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix} & (32) \\{\begin{matrix}{H_{c11} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}A{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\y_{c2}^{1} & y_{c2}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c2}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{{cK} + 1}^{1} & y_{{cK} + 1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{{cK} + 1}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix}{where}\begin{matrix}{y_{ck}^{n} \equiv {{CA}^{k}x^{n}}} \\{= {y^{n + k} - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{0}r_{i}^{n + k}}} - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{1}r_{i}^{n + k - 1}}} - \ldots\quad - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{k}r_{i}^{n}}}}}\end{matrix}} & (33)\end{matrix}$
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein a total number of inputsamples is equal to M+1+K+(2+K)×N_(i).
 10. The method of claim 1,wherein at least some of the input signals are filtered through alow-pass filter.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality ofinput signals includes applying multiple step inputs in a sequentialmanner.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of inputsignals includes applying multiple pulse inputs in a sequential manner.13. The method of claim 1, further comprising performing a second orderreduction based on the Frequency-Domain Karhunen-Loeve (FDKL) method tothe SCI/ERA ROM using the plurality of input signals.
 14. The method ofclaim 13, further comprising premultiplying the SCI/ERA ROM matrices byΦ^(T) to yield a new reduced-order model as follows:p ^(n+1) =A ₁ p ^(n) +B ₁ u ^(n)  (53)y ^(n) =C ₁ p ^(n) +D _(u) ^(n)  (54) whereA₁≡Φ^(T)AΦ  (55)B₁≡Φ^(T)B  (56)C₁≡CΦ  (57)
 15. A method of model reduction and system identification ofa dynamic system with multiple inputs, comprising: generating aplurality of statistically independent random numbers for use as inputsignals; and performing a singular-value-decomposition directly on asystem response of the dynamic system due to a simultaneous excitationof the plurality of input signals; sampling individual pulse responsesfor a first time step and a second time step; defining H_(c0) and H_(c1)matrices as follows: $\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {{y_{c0}^{1}\quad y_{c0}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c0}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {C{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (25) \\\begin{matrix}{H_{c1} \equiv {{y_{c1}^{1}\quad y_{c1}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c1}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {{CA}{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (26) \\{{{SVD}\quad{of}\quad H_{c0}\quad{yields}}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {U\quad\Sigma\quad V^{T}}} \\{\text{?}{{{{U_{R}\quad U_{D}}}\begin{bmatrix}\Sigma_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}} \\{= {U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}V_{R}^{T}}}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (27)\end{matrix}$ obtaining system matrices (A, B, C, D) by a least squareapproximation as follows: $\begin{matrix}{D = Y^{0}} & (28) \\{C\text{?}U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}} & (29) \\{B\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}} & (30) \\{{A\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (31)\end{matrix}$
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein at least some of theinput signals are filtered through a low-pass filter.
 17. The method ofclaim 15, wherein the plurality of input signals includes applyingmultiple step inputs in a sequential manner.
 18. The method of claim 15,wherein the plurality of input signals includes applying multiple pulseinputs in a sequential manner.
 19. The method of claim 15, furthercomprising performing a second order reduction using theFrequency-Domain Karhunen-Loeve (FDKL) method to the SCI/ERA ROM usingthe plurality of input signals.
 20. A method of simulating a fluid flow,comprising: generating a plurality of statistically independent randomnumbers for use as input signals; and performing asingular-value-decomposition directly on a fluid response due to asimultaneous excitation of the plurality of input signals.
 21. Themethod of claim 20, further comprising sampling individual pulseresponses for first and second time steps.
 22. The method of claim 20,further comprising defining H_(c0) and H_(c1) matrices as follows:$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {{y_{c0}^{1}\quad y_{c0}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c0}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {C{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (25) \\\begin{matrix}{H_{c1} \equiv {{y_{c1}^{1}\quad y_{c1}^{2}\quad\ldots\quad y_{c1}^{M - 1}}}} \\{= {{CA}{{x^{1}\quad x^{2}\quad\ldots\quad x^{M - 1}}}}}\end{matrix} & (26) \\{{{SVD}\quad{of}\quad H_{c0}\quad{yields}}\begin{matrix}{H_{c0} \equiv {U\quad\Sigma\quad V^{T}}} \\{\text{?}{{{{U_{R}\quad U_{D}}}\begin{bmatrix}\Sigma_{R} & 0 \\0 & 0\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}V_{R}^{T} \\V_{D}^{T}\end{bmatrix}}} \\{= {U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}V_{R}^{T}}}\end{matrix}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (27)\end{matrix}$
 23. The method of claim 22, further obtaining fluid systemmatrices (A, B, C, D) approximately as follows: $\begin{matrix}{D = Y^{0}} & (28) \\{C\text{?}U_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{1/2}} & (29) \\{B\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}Y^{1}} & (30) \\{{A\text{?}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}U_{R}^{T}H_{c1}V_{R}\Sigma_{R}^{{- 1}/2}}{\text{?}\text{indicates text missing or illegible when filed}}} & (31)\end{matrix}$
 24. The method of claim 22, further comprising definingaugmented H_(c01) and H_(c11) matrices as follows: $\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{H_{c01} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c0}^{1} & y_{c0}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c0}^{M - 1} \\y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{cK}^{1} & y_{cK}^{2} & \ldots & y_{cK}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix} & (32) \\{\begin{matrix}{H_{c11} \equiv {\begin{bmatrix}C \\{CA} \\{CA}^{2} \\\vdots \\{CA}^{K}\end{bmatrix}A{\begin{matrix}x^{1} & x^{2} & \ldots & x^{M - 1}\end{matrix}}}} \\{= \begin{bmatrix}y_{c1}^{1} & y_{c1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c1}^{M - 1} \\y_{c2}^{1} & y_{c2}^{2} & \ldots & y_{c2}^{M - 1} \\\ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\y_{{cK} + 1}^{1} & y_{{cK} + 1}^{2} & \ldots & y_{{cK} + 1}^{M - 1}\end{bmatrix}}\end{matrix}{where}\begin{matrix}{y_{ck}^{n} \equiv {{CA}^{k}x^{n}}} \\{= {y^{n + k} - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{0}r_{i}^{n + k}}} - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{1}r_{i}^{n + k - 1}}} - \ldots\quad - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{i}}{y_{i}^{k}r_{i}^{n}}}}}\end{matrix}} & (33)\end{matrix}$
 25. The method of claim 20, wherein at least some of theinput signals are at least one of filtered through a low-pass filter,applied in multiple step inputs in a sequential manner, and applied inmultiple pulse inputs in a sequential manner.